First Maroon War

Source:

 Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience, Second Edition

First Maroon War

Early-eighteenth-century war in Jamaica between runaway slaves—known as maroons—and white colonists; the war followed a series of maroon revolts that began in the second half of the seventeenth century.

Maroons were a part of society wherever slavery existed in the Americas. When the environment was conducive to flight and isolation, and when protective cover proved effective, escaped slaves came together to form settled, structured communities. Maroon communities were particularly prevalent in plantation economies. Jamaica's plantations were typical of plantation economies in the Caribbean: African slaves outnumbered Europeans, it was common for owners to live away from their plantations, and because of the warm climate there were minimal clothing and shelter needs. These factors made it easier for slaves to escape.

Jamaica came under British rule in 1655 when Spanish settlers failed to repel invading soldiers under Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector of England. When Spanish plantation owners fled from the British, slaves found themselves free, and they eventually moved into the remote areas of the Blue Mountains on the eastern side of the island. The runaway slaves presented a formidable challenge to British control of the island.

The British continued to import slaves from Africa, bringing in about 50,000 captives during the second half of the seventeenth century. Plantation owners demanded increasing numbers of slaves, because harsh plantation conditions led to high mortality rates among slaves. In addition, slaves escaped to maroon communities. New maroon settlements sprang up throughout the mountainous interior, and by the 1720s the communities were numerous enough and sufficiently organized to threaten the viability of British Colonial Rule.

The maroon threats came from two main communities: the Leeward group and the Windward group. The Leeward group, located in the mountainous regions in the center of the island, was led by its chief, Cudjoe, who was known for his skills in leadership and guerrilla warfare. The Windward group was in the northeastern region and was led by Cuffee, also an adept leader and fighter. The main settlement of the Windward band was Nanny Town (now Mooretown), named for Nanny, a legendary obeah, or sorcerer, who had considerable influence over her community.

Full-Scale War

In 1729, the House of Assembly (the Jamaican administration), backed with unwavering support from the British government, launched a full-scale war against the maroons. The objectives were to retrieve the runaways for plantation slavery and to kill those who resisted. The maroons proved impossible to dislodge, however, and they defended their freedom with a tenacity that dismayed both the local planter-led militia regiments and imperial troops. The maroons' use of guerrilla warfare tactics gave them a decided military advantage over the British.

The first major expedition sent out against the maroons was assembled in May 1730 at Port Royal (now Kingston) on the southeastern coast of Jamaica. It sailed to the town of Port Antonio on the northeastern side of the island. There, under the command of General Robert Hunter, governor of Jamaica, the expedition began its march into the mountains above the town. The expedition consisted of a group of ninety-five volunteers and militiamen and twenty-two baggage slaves. Reports suggest that the British party was ambushed and overwhelmed by the maroons. The white survivors fled for their lives and were accused of cowardice by their commanders. Another expedition was sent out the following month, and it met a similar fate. Governor Hunter then requested from England a military force of “200 effective men” to suppress the “considerable body of rebels.” Meanwhile, the House of Assembly had made legislative provisions to pay a reward of twenty pounds for the capturing and killing of any maroon man, and ten pounds for a woman.

In 1731 the Colonial Office informed Governor Hunter that they would send a considerable force from Gibraltar, the British colony on the Iberian Peninsula. The new forces were gathered to lead the challenge against the maroon bands on the Leewards' side of the island under Cudjoe's command. A lesser force was assembled to assault the Windward maroons. The two regiments from Gibraltar arrived in February 1731, but they proved ineffective against the maroons. In the opinion of one officer, the maroons were “more insolent and dangerous than formerly.”

Recognizing the failure of military expeditions against the maroons, the colonial administration became desperate. The maroons made frequent reprisals against towns and plantations, killing whites, burning property, and liberating and capturing slaves. In 1732 a legal provision granted freedom to any slave who killed a maroon.

The white colonists were not successful in the war until 1732, when they took Nanny Town and two other maroon settlements. Incompetence and bad weather, however, prohibited them from prolonging this success. In 1733 the maroons recaptured Nanny Town, easily routing the British despite the fact that the British had advance warning of the attack. The planters continued to be outmaneuvered in battle. Meanwhile, maroon communities were growing, and towns under their governance were developing throughout the interior of the island. In 1734 the British, at great expense, recaptured Nanny Town. By 1737, after a relatively quiet period, the maroons had resumed their raids and ambushes on the whites.

The idea of seeking peace with the maroons became increasingly attractive to Jamaican planters. The cost of maintaining the war was prohibitive, and the social and economic impact on the plantation system was burdensome to individual planters. The loss of white life was also taking its toll on plantation communities. On August 20, 1737, Colonel John Guthrie, commander of the military forces against the Leeward maroons, instructed his troops: “If you come up to any Town belonging to Cudjoe, on his offering to treat, you are not to burn or destroy such Town, or suffer the same to be plundered, that thereby you may give the rebels a testimony of the Governor's good intentions touching the said Treaty.” These were the precise instructions given Guthrie by Governor Edward Trelawny, whose council had now agreed upon the need for a negotiated settlement with the maroons.

Peace Agreement

On March 1, 1739, a treaty of peace was signed between the maroons of Trelawny Town (a Leeward maroon community) and the representatives of King George II of England. The preamble to the treaty set out the terms of the agreement:

"In the name of God, Amen. Whereas Captain Cudjoe, Captain Accompong, Captain Johnny, Captain Cuffee, Captain Quaco, and several other Negroes, their dependants and adherents, have been in a state of war and hostility, for several years past, against our sovereign Lord the King, and the inhabitants of this island … and whereas his Majesty, King George the Second, King of Britain … has granted full power and authority to John Guthrie and Francis Sadler, Esquires, to negotiate and finally conclude a treaty of peace and friendship with the aforesaid Captain Cudjoe, and the rest of his captains, adherents, and others his men; they mutually, sincerely, and amicably have agreed to the following articles …"

The terms of the treaty reflected a willingness to compromise on the critical issues facing both sides. The Windward band of maroons, however, was less willing to reconcile with the whites. However, their numbers were reduced, and the Leeward maroons had pledged, as part of the treaty, to fight against them. With reluctance and suspicion, the Windward maroons signed a similar treaty with the British later in 1739.

Significance

The treaty signed by Cudjoe in 1739 recognized the maroons as free persons with a right to occupy agreed-upon lands. They were free to grow crops, raise livestock, hunt, and sell produce in public markets. However, the treaty also called for “Captain Cudjoe, and his successors” to “use their best endeavors to take, kill, suppress, or destroy, either by themselves, or jointly … all rebels wheresoever they be.” Furthermore, the maroons agreed to participate with the British in the repulsion of any foreign power that invaded the colony. The treaty also stipulated that maroons should make no effort to recruit new members among existing slaves, and that they would apprehend and return runaway slaves to British authorities. For each returned runaway, the House of Assembly agreed to a reward of thirty shillings, plus expenses.

Through the treaty the maroons entered a new political relationship with slave owners. In return for the recognition of their freedom, the maroons assumed the dubious role of police and protectors with regard to slavery as an institution. On the other hand, the very existence of maroons as free and autonomous inhabitants of the colony undermined the institution of slavery.

See also Maroonage in the Americas; Slave Rebellions in Latin America and the Caribbean; Slavery in Latin America and the Caribbean.

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